E-Waste Management in the Digital Age: Global Trends, Toxicological Risks, and Green Recovery Technologies

Abstract

The exponential growth of electronic waste (e-waste) has become an urgent environmental and public health concern due to its toxic composition and propensity for illegal disposal. This review synthesizes e-waste generation, composition, and policy responses globally. It discusses the toxicological risks posed by heavy metals, brominated flame retardants, and persistent organic pollutants contained in the majority of end-of-life electronics. The paper then goes on to discuss emerging green technologies for e-waste recycling such as hydrometallurgical leaching, bioleaching, supercritical fluid extraction, and microfactory systems that minimize environmental damage while maximizing material recovery. It also explores the impact of producer responsibility, integration of the informal sector, and eco-design on the evolution of sustainable e-waste management systems. Global policies, for example, Basel Convention and WEEE Directive, are critically discussed alongside problems of transboundary dumping, informal recycling hazards, and inadequate public enlightenment. The article concludes by propounding multi-stakeholder frameworks towards creating secure, efficient, and equitable circular e-waste systems.